Six Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy (Shada Darshana) GK Facts & Study Guide
Classical Indian philosophy is organized into two primary streams based on epistemological and metaphysical allegiances: the Astika (orthodox) and Nastika (heterodox) traditions. Astika schools accept the supreme epistemic authority of the Vedas as unauthored, self-evident truth, whereas Nastika schools—exemplified by Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, and Ajivika—explicitly reject Vedic infallibility. Within the orthodox tradition, intellectual inquiry crystallized into the Shada Darshana, or the Six Systems of Indian Philosophy: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta). Rather than representing isolated dogmatic sects, these six schools evolved as mutually enriching, paired intellectual traditions structured into three complementary dyads addressing metaphysics, epistemology, and soteriological liberation.
The first dyad comprises Samkhya and Yoga. Founded by Sage Kapila, Samkhya represents the oldest rationalist system in Indian thought, advancing a dualistic realism based on two eternal principles: Purusha (pure, unattached consciousness) and Prakriti (primordial matter), which evolves into the phenomenal cosmos through the equilibrium and imbalance of the three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas). Yoga, codified by Sage Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras, provides the practical, psycho-spiritual discipline to actualize the discriminative discernment between Purusha and Prakriti through Ashtanga Yoga (the Eight Limbs). The second dyad unites Nyaya and Vaisheshika. Founded by Sage Gautama, Nyaya provides a rigorous system of logic and epistemology, establishing four valid means of knowledge (Pramanas): perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony. Vaisheshika, founded by Sage Kanada, formulates an atomic metaphysics (Paramanuvada) and classifies reality into seven foundational categories (Padarthas).
The third dyad pairs Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa, both of which anchor their doctrines directly in Vedic textual hermeneutics. Purva Mimamsa, authored by Sage Jaimini, focuses on the ritualistic and injunctive portions of the Vedas (Karmakanda), defending the eternity, authorlessness, and absolute efficacy of Vedic sacrifices in maintaining cosmic and moral order (Dharma). Uttara Mimamsa, or Vedanta, founded by Sage Badarayana in the Brahma Sutras, investigates the philosophical and theological insights of the Upanishads (Jnanakanda). Vedanta explores the ultimate metaphysical identity of Brahman (the absolute reality), Atman (the individual soul), and Jagat (the universe), giving rise to renowned non-dualist and dualist commentaries. Across their epistemological differences, all six schools share the central soteriological goal of liberating the soul from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
Unlike classical Samkhya which is non-theistic, Yoga introduces Ishvara (a special Purusha untouched by afflictions) as an object of meditation.
Sage Gautama (Aksapada) founded the Nyaya school, creating a comprehensive system of Indian logic and epistemological inquiry in the Nyaya Sutras.
Nyaya recognizes four valid sources of knowledge (Pramanas): Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), and Shabda (testimony).
Nyaya developed a five-membered syllogism (Pancha Avayava) for inference: Pratijna (proposition), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example), Upanaya (application), and Nigamana (conclusion).
Sage Kanada (Kashyapa) founded the Vaisheshika school, authoring the Vaisheshika Sutras and developing the atomic theory of the universe (Paramanuvada).
Vaisheshika asserts that all physical substances in the material world are formed by the combination of eternal, indivisible atoms (Paramanu).
Sage Jaimini founded the Purva Mimamsa school, focusing on the ritualistic injunctions of the Vedas (Karmakanda) and defending their eternal authorless nature (Apaurusheyatva).
Sage Badarayana (Vyasa) founded Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta, synthesizing the Upanishadic teachings on Brahman and Atman in the Brahma Sutras.
All six orthodox schools share the fundamental objective of spiritual liberation (Moksha, Kaivalya, or Apavarga) from the cycle of worldly suffering.
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