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Buddhism & Jainism: Eightfold Path, Tripitaka & Mahavira

The emergence of Buddhism and Jainism during the sixth century BCE marked a major socio-religious transformation across the middle Gangetic plains, coinciding with the Second Urbanization and the rise of Mahajanapadas. Arising as heterodox Shramana movements, both traditions rejected Vedic ritualism, animal sacrifices, and hereditary varna hierarchies. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563–483 BCE), born in Lumbini, who achieved enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Dharmachakrapravartana), and attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar. Gautama expounded the Four Noble Truths (Chatvari Aryasatyani), the Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga), the Middle Path (Majjhima Patipada), and the doctrines of Dependent Origination (Pratityasamutpada), impermanence (Anicca), and soullessness (Anatta).

Jainism reveres twenty-four Tirthankaras, beginning with Rishabhanatha and including the twenty-third, Parshvanatha. Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE), born at Kundagrama near Vaishali, attained Kaivalya under a sal tree at Jimbhikagrama and reached Nirvana at Pavapuri. Mahavira codified the Five Great Vows (Mahavratas)—adding Brahmacharya (chastity) to Parshvanatha's four vows of Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), and Aparigraha (non-possession). Jain metaphysics centers on the Triratna—Samyag Darshana (Right Faith), Samyag Jnana (Right Knowledge), and Samyag Charitra (Right Conduct)—alongside rigorous ascetic penance and the epistemological doctrines of Anekantavada (multiplicity of reality) and Syadvada (conditional predication). While Buddhist canonical literature assembled into the Pali Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma), Jain sacred lore was codified into the Prakrit Angas and Upangas.

Doctrinal evolution was shaped through formal councils. Buddhism convened four councils: the First at Rajgriha (483 BCE) under Ajatashatru where Upali and Ananda recited the Vinaya and Sutta; the Second at Vaishali (383 BCE) under Kalashoka causing the Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika schism; the Third at Pataliputra (250 BCE) under Ashoka compiling the Abhidhamma; and the Fourth in Kashmir (72 CE) under Kanishka formalizing the Mahayana and Hinayana division. Jainism held its First Council at Pataliputra under Sthulabhadra around 300 BCE, formalizing the Digambara and Shvetambara split, and its Second Council at Vallabhi in the fifth century CE under Devardhi Kshamasramana. In UPSC CSE (GS Paper I) and SSC CGL, questions frequently test philosophical concepts, royal patrons, council chronologies, canonical scriptures, and early monastic art.
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  1. #1
    Gautama Buddha formulated the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path (Middle Path), and Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination) in Pali canonical texts.
  2. #2
    Four historic Buddhist Councils codified the Tripitaka (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma) and culminated in the Mahayana-Hinayana division at Kundalvana (72 CE).
  3. #3
    Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, consolidated Jain doctrine based on rigorous asceticism, Ahimsa (extreme non-violence), and the Five Great Vows (Mahavratas).
  4. #4
    Jain epistemology is defined by Anekantavada (many-sided reality) and Syadvada (relativity of truth judgements), preserved across Digambara and Svetambara traditions.
  5. #5
    Both Shramana movements rejected Vedic animal sacrifices and caste hierarchies, adopting Prakrit and Pali languages to disseminate teachings to lay populations.
  6. #6
    Siddhartha Gautama was born in Lumbini around 563 BCE into the Shakya clan of Kapilavastu, attaining Enlightenment (Nirvana) at age 35 beneath a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya.
  7. #7
    Buddha delivered his first sermon, known as the Dharmachakrapravartana Sutra (Turning of the Wheel of Law), to five disciples at the Deer Park in Sarnath.
  8. #8
    The First Buddhist Council took place at Rajagriha in 486 BCE under King Ajatashatru, where Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka.
  9. #9
    The Second Buddhist Council convened at Vaishali in 383 BCE under King Kalashoka, witnessing the first major schism between the Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas.
  10. #10
    Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) is venerated as the first Tirthankara, while Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara from Varanasi, introduced four vows to which Mahavira added celibacy (Brahmacharya).
  11. #11
    The First Jain Council met at Pataliputra around 300 BCE under Sthulabhadra, compiling the 12 Angas following the migration of Bhadrabahu's followers to Shravanabelagola.
  12. #12
    The Second Jain Council convened at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the 5th century CE under Devardhi Kshamasramana, finalizing the Svetambara canonical texts.
  13. #13
    Digambara monks practice complete sky-clad asceticism following Bhadrabahu, whereas Svetambara monks wear white unstitched garments following Sthulabhadra.
  14. #14
    The core ethical philosophy of Jainism is summarized in the Three Jewels (Triratna): Right Faith (Samyak Darshana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra).
  15. #15
    Emperor Ashoka dispatched royal Buddhist missions abroad, sending his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka with a sapling of the original Bodhi tree.

Subject Specialist Commentary

Analytical perspective & practical exam advice from the Master10 academic board

Educator's Insight
Buddhism and Jainism arose in sixth-century BCE northern India as heterodox Shramana traditions challenging Vedic rituals and rigid caste hierarchies. Gautama Buddha preached the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Path in simple Pali, teaching that desire causes suffering and can be overcome. Around the same time, Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Jain Tirthankara, emphasized extreme non-violence (Ahimsa), severe asceticism, and philosophical doctrines like Anekantavada (multiple viewpoints of truth) using the popular Prakrit language.
In UPSC and State PSC exams, questions heavily target the historic councils and sectarian splits. For Buddhist councils, use the mnemonic R-V-P-K for locations: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Pataliputra, and Kundalvana (Kashmir). Remember that the fourth council under Kanishka split Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana. A common prelims trap mixes up Jain leaders: Bhadrabahu led the sky-clad Digambaras to southern India, whereas Sthulabhadra led the white-robed Svetambaras who compiled texts at the First Jain Council in Pataliputra.

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